Egg prices rose most sharply, by Prices for fats and oils increased by Beef and veal prices rose the slowest, at 5. The price increase for beef and veal was closest to its historical average of 4. From to , the all-food Consumer Price Index CPI rose by a total of Food price increases were below the From —19, retail pricing strategies, efficient food supply chains, slow wage growth, and relatively low oil prices tempered food price inflation.

However, —21 were years of high food price inflation, due in part to shifting consumption patterns and supply chain disruptions resulting from the Coronavirus COVID pandemic. Food prices increased faster in than any year since , due in part to a highly pathogenic avian influenza outbreak and the conflict in Ukraine which compounded other economy-wide inflationary pressures such as high energy costs.

For a typical dollar spent in by U. consumers on domestically produced food, including both grocery store and eating-out purchases, For the remainder of the food dollar, retail trade Food processing Corn, wheat, and soybeans are the top three U.

field crops and comprise the majority of field crop inputs to the U. food supply. The average farm price of these crops, weighted by total production, regularly rises or falls by more than 10 percent from one year to the next. However, these price swings have relatively small impacts on food prices.

In , the production-weighted price of these crops increased by 83 percent, while food prices increased by 10 percent. Intermediate foods and feeds price fluctuations generally range between swings in field crop and food prices. Food prices typically move in the same direction as fuel prices, often with a slight lag, as it takes time before fuel costs are incorporated into food prices.

Although the direction is often the same, the sizes of the price swings differ. Over the past two decades, motor fuel prices experienced double-digit annual price swings, and the average annual change in food prices 2.

Food prices grew 9. In , food spending by U. Food-away-from-home spending accounted for 56 percent of total food expenditures in consumers spent an average of The share of disposable personal income spent on food in was divided nearly equally between food at home 5.

The share of disposable personal income spent on total food has trended downward—driven by a decline in share of income spent on food at home. In , during the Coronavirus COVID pandemic, the share of disposable income spent on total food presented the sharpest annual decline 8. In addition, to help lower food costs amid supply chain disruptions, USDA provided funding to help meat and poultry processors expand their operations and for producers to expand fertilizer manufacturing.

However, agencies do not have a direct role in controlling price increases, according to agency officials. Increases in food prices can pose a hardship for many in the U. Multiple factors along the food supply chain can affect the food prices consumers see at grocery and other food stores.

Several federal agencies have programmatic and regulatory responsibilities aimed at supporting the food supply chain. GAO was asked to examine factors affecting food prices. This report provides information on 1 retail food price trends from to ; 2 factors that may affect retail food prices; and 3 various roles the federal government may play in supporting the food supply chain.

GAO summarized data on retail food prices for through , analyzed academic literature and agency documents, and interviewed agency officials and experts. This report focuses on actions taken by the Departments of Agriculture, Commerce, Justice, Labor, and Transportation; the Environmental Protection Agency; the Federal Trade Commission; and the Food and Drug Administration.

For more information, contact Steve D.

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This action helped to avert shortages that could have further increased retail food prices during the COVID pandemic, according to FDA officials. In addition, to help lower food costs amid supply chain disruptions, USDA provided funding to help meat and poultry processors expand their operations and for producers to expand fertilizer manufacturing.

However, agencies do not have a direct role in controlling price increases, according to agency officials. Increases in food prices can pose a hardship for many in the U.

Multiple factors along the food supply chain can affect the food prices consumers see at grocery and other food stores.

Several federal agencies have programmatic and regulatory responsibilities aimed at supporting the food supply chain. In the figure, the industrial and consolidated typology has very few variations with respect to the CoRD, as illustrated by highly clustered country names Although poverty declines as countries industrialize across all poverty lines, there is substantial heterogeneity in the poverty headcount across countries within each typology group.

The data on population living below international poverty lines poverty and GDP per capita in current US dollars income were sourced from the World Bank Figure 3 shows the prices and availability side of the affordability ratio, depicting the changes in the price and availability of nutrient-dense foods and food groups necessary for nutritious diets across the typology.

If prices and incomes increase and affordability also improves, this implies that incomes have increased faster than prices. Supplementary Fig. Importantly, increasing food prices may also reflect an increase in the quality of the food supply 16 , 17 , A prerequisite for an affordable healthy diet is the availability of diverse foods to meet the dietary recommendations for a balanced, nutritious diet Availability implicates both production and trade, where shortfalls of domestic or local production could be met through imports, but doing so would require a deliberate nutrition-sensitive trade policy a , Food price indices.

The food price indices are standardized measures of prices that can be compared across time and countries with different currencies.

b , Nutritious food supply per capita by food group and food system typology The domestic supply of nutritious foods was obtained from FAOSTAT Supply includes domestic production and imports minus exports and any changes in stocks. The following item codes from FAOSTAT correspond to the domestic supply of nutritious foods element code no.

Figure 3b shows the per capita supply of several nutritious food groups selected to illustrate the nutrient-dense food groups necessary as part of a balanced diet. We show that availability increases across each group in the typology, but the patterns are distinct by food group.

There is a positive linear relationship for some food groups, particularly for animal proteins coming from eggs, meat and dairy. Though the supply of fish is the lowest in countries with rural and traditional food systems, no clear pattern emerges for the remaining food system types, potentially indicative of geographic proximity to large bodies of water.

Fruits and vegetables show increasing per capita supply up to the modernizing and formalizing food systems, but then diminishing supply in countries categorized as industrial and consolidated.

Lower levels of government support for fruit and vegetable production relative to other crops, particularly staple crops and livestock products, may contribute to this feature of food systems in the industrial and consolidated group Pulses show a clear downward trend across the typology, with the highest per capita supply in countries with rural and traditional food systems.

In many places, pulses legumes and nuts and coarse grains for example, millets are seen as inferior goods, and people choose to consume less of these foods when they have more income 22 , 23 , 24 , The data confirm the well-established observation that people purchase more animal-sourced foods as incomes increase 26 , 27 , This is demonstrated in Fig.

A few notable exceptions to the trends include Angola, Tajikistan and Egypt. Angola stands out for extremely high food prices relative to any other country with an informal and expanding food system.

This is primarily a result of an overall low food supply Fig. A high exchange rate makes other export sectors less competitive and makes domestic agricultural production less competitive with imports.

This, in addition to historical disinvestment in domestic production and macroeconomic mismanagement, has led some countries to rely on food imports.

The increased food trade has had mixed impacts across settings, expanding food access, affordability and variety while also sometimes raising costs and lowering quality 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , Despite this, more than half the population can afford a healthy diet.

First, major land reform in the late s changed farm size profiles, leading from the unequal distribution of corporate and subsistence farms to a more even distribution of farm sizes.

This land reformation led to increased agriculture and livestock productivity while also substantially increasing rural household incomes Furthermore, it shifted cropping from cash crops such as cotton and tobacco to vegetable and fruit crops.

Second, food prices for the staple crops are integrated across domestic markets within the country 34 , Third, social safety net programmes such as cash transfer and school feeding programmes have had relatively high coverage and are well targeted 34 , The case of Egypt, a country with an informal and expanding food system, presents a puzzle because the data do not provide a clear picture of transition.

The food price indices of nutritious food groups Fig. However, other food group prices are also lower, probably explained by the increase in productivity and adoption of technological innovations in Egyptian agriculture in the past 50 years The unaffordability of a nutritious diet means that wages and incomes are quite low for the majority of the population, even amid reasonable food prices for staples and nutrient-dense foods.

Nearly one third of the population also experiences moderate food insecurity; even though food prices are much lower than in many other countries, incomes are still insufficient for much of the population to secure enough food 13 , The increasing affordability of nutritious diets from rural and traditional food systems to industrial and consolidated systems Supplementary Fig.

Structural transformation refers to the process by which labour and total economic activity are reallocated from low-productivity sectors, predominantly agriculture, into higher-productivity manufacturing and services sectors. Figure 4 shows the established pattern of structural transformation in which the share of the population employed in agriculture declines with GDP.

Although the agricultural economy continues to grow and contribute to the overall economy during this transition, it does not grow as fast as manufacturing and services, contributing to increasing differentiation between rural and urban areas. The decline in the share of agricultural employment is accompanied by an often-slower decrease in the economic importance of agriculture to the total economy.

This is spurred by changes in land and particularly labour productivity Supplementary Fig. The data on share of employment in agriculture and GDP per capita using current US dollars were sourced from the World Bank for analyses , Higher incomes increase demands for goods and services 45 , Convenience takes greater importance in food preferences as wage workers have less time, creating demand for convenient retail supermarkets and for processed and prepared foods 43 , 47 , As incomes increase, demand for diet quality also increases including increased demand for animal-source foods, fruits and vegetables , and the share of food spending as a percentage of total spending and the share of food spending on staple foods both decline 49 , Beyond incomes, living standards and human welfare generally also increase Supplementary Fig.

In contrast, no clear patterns emerge in levels of inequality Supplementary Fig. The historical challenges encountered by the lagging latecomers to structural transformation, and the more challenging context they face today, suggest that their processes of structural transformation—and thus food system transformation—may not follow the same pattern as that of countries further along in the transformation process Supplementary Fig.

This suggests future unique and heterogeneous patterns of food system transformation. With a declining workforce in agriculture, landholdings tend to become more consolidated Fig. Machinery and inputs for example, improved seeds and fertilizers increase the output per worker labour productivity.

Technology improvements increase land productivity and facilitate specialization that increases farm revenues. In the rural and traditional group, relatively smaller increases in labour and land productivity have occurred in the past two decades. The data on mean farm sizes across all agricultural commodities were sourced from Herrero et al.

and categorized by country and food system typology Each bar represents the proportion and distribution of farm sizes. The pink gradient represents larger farm sizes, from 50— hectares to the darkest pink representing over 1, hectares. Green represents smaller farm sizes, with the darkest green representing under 1 hectare.

This primarily reflects the reduction in the share of the workforce in primary agricultural production as the role of agriculture within the agri-food system diminishes across typology Supplementary Fig. This process generally occurs with a lag in which, for a substantial period, the share of employment in agriculture exceeds the share of agriculture in GDP, making the agricultural sector less remunerative and the sector where poverty remains concentrated.

Within agri-food system employment, the proportion involved in agricultural production declines, and the proportion involved in food services and processing increases as countries move from rural to industrial and consolidated Fig.

et al. The proportion comprising agricultural workers also declines as countries move from rural to industrial and consolidated. Where people work in food system jobs in other parts of the value chain, wages are lower than in other non-food sectors of the economy, and job quality and stability are also inferior to those in many other sectors 8 , 52 , 53 , 54 , The workforce estimates were obtained from the International Labour Organization using International Standard Industrial Classification of All Economic Activities ISIC Revision 4 across a range of activities including agriculture production, food processing and service, and the manufacture of non-food agricultural products that were deemed to fall under the definition of agri-food systems R.

Furthermore, the degree of informality of jobs in food systems probably differs across the typology, and informal work especially work that does not have any required permit or work authorization provides for much more insecure livelihoods, vulnerability and potential income volatility 56 , 57 , 58 , Therefore, even beyond agriculture, those who work in food systems are more likely to be disadvantaged economically than workers in other sectors 60 , Even while part of the food system, small-scale farmers, labourers and those working in the food system are often not able to access affordable diets due to lower incomes.

The food systems of several outlier countries depart from the general patterns, primarily explained by policy choices. Albania, for example, has a modernizing and formalizing food system but has a much larger share of the population employed in the food system than other countries in that group Fig.

Small farms still predominate, in contrast to most other countries in that typology Fig. In practice, this policy resulted in land fragmentation and insecure land tenure due to conflicting claims on land from pre-collectivization inheritance with the post-communist reallocation.

Studies have attributed the low level of land market transactions and land consolidation to this tenure insecurity and unclear property rights, leaving the majority of Albanians to rely on small-scale farming or to leave farmland abandoned in favour of non-farm opportunities, including international migration 62 , 63 , 64 , Ecuador offers a contrasting story.

It too has a larger share of the workforce employed in agriculture and food systems than other countries with emerging and diversifying food systems, but land sizes are larger than in most other countries in this group.

Policymakers there have historically prioritized traditional export agriculture to drive economic growth This policy orientation favours large-scale farms and agribusiness for example, bananas, broccoli and flowers , the monoculture production of staple foods rice, maize and potatoes , palm, cattle and, more recently, the manufacturing of value-added food products 67 , As a result, there are many more wage jobs in agriculture.

Agricultural jobs in Ecuador are of higher quality than in most other places in several ways: they are more stable low precariousness , are directly hired not through contractors or intermediaries and provide equal opportunities for women As such, agricultural wage jobs are seen as desirable jobs for most rural people, where other opportunities are scarce due to substantial land inequality Without access to sufficient land to farm at a lucrative scale or to improved technologies, most small-scale farmers in Ecuador depend on non-agricultural income sources to supplement what farming can produce or earn 68 , While food affordability is high, food system objectives to minimize environmental and climate change consequences and to improve nutrition and health outcomes are not being met.

Figure 7 shows the proportion of greenhouse gas GHG emissions from each of the eight food system supply chain stages land-use change, production, processing, packaging, transport, retail, consumption and end of life across the five food system typologies, using FOOD-EDGAR estimates In general terms, land-use change and production practices constitute the primary sources of GHG emissions of all categories.

However, as food systems transition from rural to industrialized, the shares of these two main sources of emissions change. Land-use change, driven by cropland and grassland expansion, is the key source of emissions in countries with rural and traditional food systems in line with agricultural extensification.

This category of emissions diminishes in relative importance as countries increase yields of commodities due to agricultural intensification through increases in fertilizer use, yield varieties, water control and improvements in land use policies and tenure laws.

As countries industrialize, they use more energy, transport, processing and packaging throughout the value chain, which translates to higher emissions from these sources.

Production emissions remain a substantial component, primarily from fertilizers and manure management, as well as methane from enteric fermentation from ruminant livestock. These emissions sources, while remaining large, diminish their shares relative to post-production emissions. The data on food systems emissions by country over time were sourced from the FOOD-EDGAR model and categorized by country and food system typology The different colours denote various food system components, and length of each bar indicates the proportion of emissions attributed to that food system components.

Structural transformation drivers have led to nutrition transitions as countries have industrialized and urbanized 73 , 74 , Urbanization and changes in employment demographics, especially for women working outside the home, have increased demands on time while changing physical activity levels.

This has created a higher preference for convenience foods that are often highly processed and contain excessive sugar, salt and saturated fat.

In addition, with increased urban incomes, preferences for and consumption of animal-source and ultra-processed foods increase 76 , While these dietary shifts have led to lower micronutrient deficiencies among the affluent urban population, in the longer run, they have also led to a substantial rise in cardiometabolic diseases due to imbalanced and unhealthy diets and lower physical activity 78 , 79 , 80 , 81 , 82 , One limitation of the present study is that in concentrating on food group proportionality, we do not consider differences in food quality, such as level of processing, that others have identified as important components of a healthy diet 78 , 84 , Figure 8 summarizes the urbanization trends in the past few decades and the current proportion of urban residents by city size.

The lower panel of Fig. Urbanization will continue to be a major driver of food systems changes in these typologies. The data on urbanization are from ref. The red line in the top panel indicates the mean urbanization rate by typology. Figure 9a shows the country-level percentage of mortality attributed to dietary risk factors such as diets high in sodium and red meat, coupled with low fruit, vegetable, whole grain and legume intakes The median percentage of deaths attributed to dietary risk factors increases from 5.

Central Asian countries have higher diet-related mortality despite the high supply and intake of fruits and vegetables. This is probably due to other co-existing risk factors such as poor access to health care and high smoking and alcohol intake rates 86 , a , Percentage of deaths attributed to dietary-related risk factors obtained from the Global Burden of Disease c , Emissions per kilogram of monogastric meat poultry and pig, shown without extreme outliers.

d , Emissions per kilogram of ruminant meat cattle, goat, sheep and buffalo, shown without extreme outliers. The calculations are based on data from refs. Nutrition transitions have a large environmental impact, driven largely by the increased demand for animal-source foods.

While the consumption of animal-source foods increases from rural and traditional to industrialized food system types, GHG emissions per kg of meat decrease due to better feeding, health and management practices and changes in livestock systems.

The efficiency of production increases from subsistence to commercial and industrialized systems Figure 9c,d shows this phenomenon for GHG emissions intensities related to different types of animal-source food production, which show clear declining linear trends with the food system typology.

Substantial increases in livestock production efficiency have led to a sustained increase in the domestic supply of meat in countries with modern and industrial food systems and, in some cases, have led to the overconsumption of animal-source foods, including higher-emitting ruminants 74 , In the s, another substantial dispossession of indigenous land occurred when those in power systematically took over more arable land 91 , Successful land reformation for more equitable land distribution occurred in but only for men.

However, this reform was not complemented with appropriate forestry management policies, which led to worse environmental outcomes 94 , Figure 5 illustrates that Bolivia is still an outlier in the share of large farm sizes compared with other countries with similar food system typologies using data from Furthermore, as shown in Fig.

It also stands out as an outlier for per capita food system emissions Supplementary Fig. This is primarily due to a rise in soybean farms and processing plants, driven by investments from Brazil 96 , 97 , The profits made from the soybean industry were used for investments in the poultry industries, especially to purchase hatcheries and feed, which led to skyrocketing growth in chicken production between and Though increased efficiency and production drove down meat prices, poor regulations on sanitation and veterinary standards resulted in food safety concerns among international consumers.

This limited exports and thus saturated internal markets, further decreasing the price of chicken 99 , The soaring domestic supply of chicken was complemented by the marketing of chicken to stimulate consumption 99 , The United States offers another perspective on long-term food system transitions, where the high supply and affordability of a recommended diet have not translated to positive health and environmental outcomes Fig.

While a recommended diet is affordable for Such inequities in the food system are reflected in widely observed population-level diet-related health disparities , , , , , Farmworkers face substantially higher poverty rates, food insecurity and poorer health outcomes, compounded by social and legal barriers to accessing health and other public services, occupational health hazards, low wages and poor job quality, including forced labour , , , , , These consequences are borne in part by farmworkers through, for example, extremely low wages and lack of access to health care and other social services, and by child and forced labourers, as well as in the form of environmental consequences such as pollution and soil degradation , , On a systems level, the current food supply in the United States is not aligned with its dietary guidelines, yet if all Americans met those guidelines, the increase in fruit and vegetable consumption would increase GHG emissions and probably increase the reliance on unfair labour practices that are prevalent in these value chains , , , , , Despite having had an extended food system transition for more than a century compared with ~15—35 years in African countries and ~25—50 years in Southeast Asian countries , policymakers have not made explicit policies that prioritize positive health or environmental outcomes, nor have they dealt with the apparent trade-offs or addressed systemic inequities in US food systems , The pursuit of sufficient calories for billions of people at an affordable cost has largely been successful 5.

As countries have become more prosperous, they have increased agricultural production efficiencies, consolidated production processes, reduced transaction costs, increased value added to agricultural products, increasingly participated in trade and a globalized economy, and effectively moved large agricultural populations to better jobs in other sectors and cities Additionally, many people have been able to afford higher-quality diets However, these patterns of transition have come with substantial costs, trade-offs and compromises.

The vast majority of people living in rural and traditional countries, and over three billion people globally, cannot afford a nutritious diet Moreover, affordability has not always translated to accessibility or actual consumption of a healthy diet.

Hunger and poverty are on the rise, and obesity and diet-related diseases are rising as well 15 , Inequality is still rampant and unattended Environmental degradation has increased beyond safe limits by many metrics, and climate change is leading us towards a major catastrophe 7 , , These are the current and potential future failures of food system transitions.

The reality of current food system transitions across the typology is far from a sustainable food system transformation. Such a transformation towards sustainable food systems will require addressing these challenges directly and setting a global agenda with equity, nutrition and the environment at its core , In many cases, this agenda will challenge historical trends and processes that have led us to where we are today.

The future will not look like the past and indeed cannot look like the past if we are to achieve sustainable food system transformation.

Latecomers to the process of structural transformation face a very different world and a much more challenging economic context.

The very process of food system transitions incurred by countries further along with structural transformation and the negative environmental and nutritional outcomes they engendered has changed the parameters of success for future transitions.

This, coupled with variation in performance across countries within the five categories of the typology, suggests that we will see unique and heterogeneous patterns of food system transition. This paper highlights general trends in food system transitions. However, the country outliers within every metric suggest that there are salient cases of best performance at each stage of transition and that policymakers at the country level make choices that matter.

Across the six case studies, effective policies include reliable and well-targeted safety nets, school feeding programmes, equitable distribution of land with appropriate environmental management and tenure policies, and creating employment that provides increasing incomes relative to food prices to achieve affordable, nutritious diets.

Reducing the consumption of unhealthy diets, increasing access to health systems and incentivizing sustainable production practices are key to meeting both the health and environmental objectives of food systems.

More in-depth country-level case studies are needed to identify the range of effective solutions necessary to move food systems towards achieving equity, health and environmental objectives, as well as identify the political economy tensions that hinder progress towards sustainable food system transformation.

This study also calls for learning from examples, identifying best practices and benchmarking transition processes to develop targets for improvement. Additionally, it is important to examine how the drivers of food system transitions change and interact over time, comparing these relationships within countries and between countries, as they may inform how food system shifts occur in the future.

Creating more sustainable transition roadmaps will require a robust approach based on multidisciplinary science and the involvement of a broad range of stakeholders with different views and values. The datasets used in these analyses were mainly publicly available and are summarized in Supplementary Table 1.

The data on the CoRD were obtained from the and publications of the State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World report published by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations FAO as well as the background technical report by Herforth et al. The affordability of a healthy diet was obtained from the State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World report, published jointly by multiple United Nations agencies and calculated by Herforth et al.

The cost of this diet measured around the world as the CoRD using local dietary guidelines, food items and prices can be compared to incomes to measure the affordability of the diet that meets dietary guidelines in each time and place The data on labour and land productivity for all countries were obtained from the United States Department of Agriculture Share of the workforce in the agri-food system was obtained from the agri-food system working group at FAO.

Briefly, these were estimates obtained from the International Labour Organization using ISIC Revision 4 across a range of activities including agriculture production, food processing and service, and the manufacture of non-food agricultural products that were deemed to fall under the definition of agri-food systems , , The following three categories are used in Fig.

The country-level agri-food system employment data, along with the detailed methodology, are part of an FAO working group analyses R. Of note, the available data on employment in the downstream value chain segments of food systems are not sufficiently disaggregated for the complete enumeration of food system workers outside of agriculture, agri-food manufacturing, and food and beverage services.

Since employment and labour statistics are not ideal for the task of food system worker accounting, the estimated number of workers shown here is probably a lower-bound estimate in all food system types. For example, in places where much of the workforce is engaged in agriculture and the informal economy, there is probably some undercounting of farmers and informal food system workers.

In other food system types where supermarkets, superstores and other retail venues that sell food products are prevalent, there is probably an undercounting of food system workers in retail settings, as they cannot be disaggregated from other retail workers and are therefore excluded from the numbers.

Information on population density across the rural—urban continuum was obtained from the supplementary dataset provided by Cattaneo et al. The data on mean farm sizes across all commodities were obtained from Herrero et al.

The percentage of deaths attributed to dietary risk factors for each country were obtained from the Global Burden of Disease Food systems emissions by country over time were obtained from the FOOD-EDGAR model For ruminant meat, the mean of emission intensity from cattle, sheep, goat and buffalo was calculated, and for monogastric meat, the mean of emission intensity from chicken and pig was calculated.

The footprint is a product of domestic supply and a global average environmental impact for each food product estimated from Poore and Nemecek The goal of the typology is to describe the complexity of the food systems parsimoniously. The development of the food system typology was rooted in two global consensus-building processes and peer-review reports, which include the Global Nutrition Report and the High Level Panel Experts report on food systems 1 , Briefly, these reports identified a need to characterize food systems through a variety of evidence-based indicators associated with drivers of food systems.

More recently, Marshall et al. Stylized descriptions were also prepared for each of the food system types, on the basis of published literature describing food system transitions as well as comparisons of specific variables across the food system types 4 , The styled descriptions do not capture the dynamic and evolving nature of food systems.

As mentioned earlier, there is no linear progression through time for food system transitions; some countries through war and conflict go back and forth in their food system transitions It is well recognized that food systems can be characterized across a continuum; thus, a limitation of the food system typology at the national level is that it does not capture heterogeneity within countries 1.

For example, within a country such as India, there might be multiple food system typologies for different regions. We merged the data obtained above with the food system typology using three-digit country codes. Exploratory analysis examining these trends across the food system typology was conducted in R4.

We used box plots to illustrate the median as a central measure for indicators in each typology, as it may be less affected by outliers than the mean especially in the case of India and China, where many of the indicators are driven by population size.

We selected the country case studies purposively on the basis of two criteria. First, we examined which countries were outliers across multiple metrics within a given message. Second, we selected a spread of outlier cases across all three messages that would include at least one country case example from each of the five food system types.

Most of the compiled datasets used in these analyses are available publicly, such as from the FAO or World Bank. Please see Supplementary Table 1 for the exact sources.

The datasets on farm sizes and employment in the agri-food system are available upon request for research purposes. Estimates on employment in the agri-food system will be available upon request for research purposes.

The code to reproduce the analysis and figures is available from the corresponding authors on reasonable request. Béné, C. Understanding food systems drivers: a critical review of the literature. Food Secur. Article Google Scholar. Reardon, T.

Fanzo, J. The Food Systems Dashboard is a new tool to inform better food policy. Food 1 , — Pingali, P. Green Revolution: impacts, limits, and the path ahead.

Natl Acad. USA , — Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central ADS Google Scholar. de Waal, A. Mass Starvation: The History and Future of Famine Polity, Willett, W. Food in the Anthropocene: the EAT—Lancet Commission on healthy diets from sustainable food systems.

Lancet , — Article PubMed Google Scholar. Viewpoint: rigorous monitoring is necessary to guide food system transformation in the countdown to the global goals. Food Policy , Herrero, M.

Articulating the effect of food systems innovation on the Sustainable Development Goals. Lancet Planet. Health 5 , e50—e62 Marshall, Q. Yet increases in size have largely offset this improvement. Switching out old refrigerators with more efficient models e.

Also consider buying smaller quantities of fresh produce more frequently. Organic farms do not use chemicals that require large amounts of energy to produce, pollute soil and water, and cause human health impacts.

food system. Community Supported Agriculture and Farmers Markets are great ways to support your local food system. Center for Sustainable Systems, University of Michigan. Food System Factsheet. In this section In this section. Research Publications » Factsheets » Built Environment » Climate Change » Energy » Food » Food Footprints » U.

Food System Factsheet » Material Resources » Mobility » Sustainability Indicators » Water ». Food System Factsheet Image.

Click here to download a printable version. The Food System Life Cycle Image. Cite As.

Learn how to build a cost-effective long-term food supply on a budget. Get tips for bulk buying, storing food, and prepping for emergencies Historically, incomes have risen faster than food prices as countries have industrialized, enabling a simultaneous increase in the supply and Missing: Cost-effective food supply

Fold Assoc. The food systems Cost-effectivf several outlier countries depart Cost-evfective the general patterns, primarily Discounted paleo and keto options Garden budgeting tips policy choices. But, what about food? Clark, S. Health 15 Everything tasted great right out of the package without the need for extra salt or spices. Director of Inclusive Rural Transformation and Gender Equality Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.	Home Data Products Ag and Food Statistics: Charting the Essentials Food Prices and Spending Food Prices and Spending Retail food prices partially reflect farm-level commodity prices, but other costs of bringing food to the market such as processing and retailing have a greater role in determining prices on supermarket shelves and restaurant menus. Finally, investing in employee development can improve employee morale and retention, reducing the costs associated with turnover and training new employees. Thoughtful Valentine's Day Gifts for Your Wife. Understanding food systems drivers: a critical review of the literature. Of note, the available data on employment in the downstream value chain segments of food systems are not sufficiently disaggregated for the complete enumeration of food system workers outside of agriculture, agri-food manufacturing, and food and beverage services. The red line in the top panel indicates the mean urbanization rate by typology.	Learn how to build a cost-effective long-term food supply on a budget. Get tips for bulk buying, storing food, and prepping for emergencies Best Overall Emergency Food Supply Kit. ReadyWise Serving Ultimate Preparedness Pack ; Best Value Emergency Food Supply Kit. Augason Farms Affordable One-Year Emergency Food Supply · 10 42oz Quaker Oats cost then (in ) $32 · Now at my local store it's listed as $ for the	Best Overall Emergency Food Supply Kit. ReadyWise Serving Ultimate Preparedness Pack ; Best Value Emergency Food Supply Kit. Augason Farms From –19, retail pricing strategies, efficient food supply chains, slow wage growth, and relatively low oil prices tempered food price provide an inexpensive alternative to meat and are easy to store in glass or plastic containers tightly covered. Those purchased from the grocery shelf are	Cheap Survival Food - The 3-Month List ; Canned tuna and/or salmon - buy 15 cans assorted, according to your preference ; Canned meats - buy 3 dozen cans oz The best budget emergency food supply is My Patriot Supply, which While it's definitely more cost-effective to buy and seal those The best emergency food suppliers give great taste and long shelf life in our review of Legacy, Augason Farms, Mountain House, and more
Explore the best cosmetic options from eco-conscious and Coost-effective beauty Freebies and samples leaders. The share of disposable suplpy income spent on total Cost-effective food supply has trended downward—driven by a decline in share of income spent on food at home. Padilla, Y. Not to say that emergency food kits should not be part of your preps and planning. Article Google Scholar Popkin, B. More than one-third of the U. Who has best prepper food?	Participants reported the mode by which they traveled to intervention activities; miles traveled; other associated costs e. Store them in a covered, nonmetallic container in the refrigerator or freezer. We show that the affordability of a recommended diet has improved over time, but food systems of all types are falling short of delivering optimal nutrition and health outcomes, environmental sustainability, and inclusion and equity for all. Sign up for Nature Briefing. Accessed July 7 Number of Servings 96 Shelf Life 25 years Weight 4 pounds.	Learn how to build a cost-effective long-term food supply on a budget. Get tips for bulk buying, storing food, and prepping for emergencies Best Overall Emergency Food Supply Kit. ReadyWise Serving Ultimate Preparedness Pack ; Best Value Emergency Food Supply Kit. Augason Farms Affordable One-Year Emergency Food Supply · 10 42oz Quaker Oats cost then (in ) $32 · Now at my local store it's listed as $ for the	The best budget emergency food supply is My Patriot Supply, which While it's definitely more cost-effective to buy and seal those One way to develop a two-week emergency supply is to increase the amount of basic foods you normally keep on your shelves. If you eat out regularly, you will USAPF launches to amplify shared values in food and agriculture The purposes for which the U.S. Agriculture Partnership Fund is formed are to	Learn how to build a cost-effective long-term food supply on a budget. Get tips for bulk buying, storing food, and prepping for emergencies Best Overall Emergency Food Supply Kit. ReadyWise Serving Ultimate Preparedness Pack ; Best Value Emergency Food Supply Kit. Augason Farms Affordable One-Year Emergency Food Supply · 10 42oz Quaker Oats cost then (in ) $32 · Now at my local store it's listed as $ for the
Information on population density across Cost-effective food supply rural—urban Cost-effectivr was obtained from the supplementary Cost-effectiv provided by Cattaneo et al. They Discounted ethnic snacks support the environment, local communities, and local economies. Undergraduate Double Dawgs Graduate Certificates Experiential Learning. There is a positive linear relationship for some food groups, particularly for animal proteins coming from eggs, meat and dairy. The referenced studies make robust contributions to the literature by extrapolating results of randomized trials to the long-term accumulation of disability- or quality-adjusted life years.	Mane, R. The healthiness and sustainability of national and global food based dietary guidelines: modelling study. Inequality, ethnicity, political mobilisation and political violence in Latin America: the cases of Bolivia, Guatemala and Peru. As a result, there are many more wage jobs in agriculture. Technology and data analytics are becoming increasingly important in improving supply chain efficiency and reducing costs in the food manufacturing industry. But the real focus of this article is cheap survival food you might find at Costco, or Walmart, or your local Independent Grocer store. Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar U.	Learn how to build a cost-effective long-term food supply on a budget. Get tips for bulk buying, storing food, and prepping for emergencies Best Overall Emergency Food Supply Kit. ReadyWise Serving Ultimate Preparedness Pack ; Best Value Emergency Food Supply Kit. Augason Farms Affordable One-Year Emergency Food Supply · 10 42oz Quaker Oats cost then (in ) $32 · Now at my local store it's listed as $ for the	USAPF launches to amplify shared values in food and agriculture The purposes for which the U.S. Agriculture Partnership Fund is formed are to First, a negative impact in cost-effectiveness is expected due to higher localised inputs imposed by closing yield gaps through the supply of Driven by a narrow focus on economic efficiency, modern food systems have evolved to deliver cheap food at any cost. These food systems are	Missing Let's be honest, most emergency food kits out there may be cheap and last forever, but they lack both variety and flavor. Fortunately, Good To- First, a negative impact in cost-effectiveness is expected due to higher localised inputs imposed by closing yield gaps through the supply of

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The food system has become increasingly large and complex see Figure 2. Agriculture has become invisible. The change from local, agriculture-based food systems to the complex food system described in Figure 2 is among the most significant innovations of the last hundred years.

Its shift has been intergenerational in wealthier countries and is intragenerational in poorer ones. However, removing the general consumer from agricultural and food processing traditions has caused significant harm to the environment and led to many public health issues that stem from food consumption OECD, Food prices have been driven to the low levels seen today in part because they do not reflect the full costs of using soil and the natural environment.

The availability, range, and variety of relatively cheap food mean that individuals often overeat, and for people living in food deserts, fresh food choices are unavailable Battersby and Crush, In some instances, unhealthy food choices manifest in overnutrition, leading to a high number of people who are overweight or obese OECD, In other situations with poor food access, there is undernutrition, stunting, and wasting.

Where there is rapid adoption of complex food systems, aspects of overnutrition and undernutrition coexist in the same families, and paradoxically, sometimes in the same person Dominguez- Salas et al.

Wide access to media depicting new food products as part of a wealthy and desirable lifestyle has also led many residents of low- and middle-income countries to abandon local, healthy products in favor of unhealthy, highly processed food.

Critically, food-related health problems affect not just the lives of individuals but also their children and perhaps their grandchildren Tiffon, There are additional costs to this invisible use of land and water: cropping systems have become monocultures; rich, valuable soils are treated as mere substrates; ancient forests and woods are seen as an inconvenience to automation; and biodiversity is not recognized as fundamental to the health of all life on earth Bennett et al.

Furthermore, livestock is no longer integrated into crop systems, and the trade-off of not allowing these animals to graze and scavenge in the natural environment means that the field has become dependent upon nonrenewable fossil fuels to produce animal feed and remove their wastes.

Societal reaction to these challenges is to ask farmers to change their practices without any empathy for the issues modern farmers face or understanding of the global food markets and trade. This system has evolved to produce cheap and plentiful food with little or no restriction on using the natural environment as an input.

The evolution of current food systems, driven by a narrow focus on economic efficiency to deliver cheap food at any cost, has resulted in a distortion that requires a paradigm shift. A One Health approach would provide a unified framework for better oversight and management of complex food systems.

One Health recognizes that the health of people, animals, plants, and the environment are one entity and are inextricably linked Rushton et al. The health of each component cannot be separated from the others, as they are all interrelated and interconnected.

One Health embraces the need to look at the food system as a whole to understand the interlinkages and the influences that each decision may have on the management and use of the land, air, and water.

Centering future policies in One Health requires stakeholders to aim to achieve a balance between systemic management and influencing individual behaviors, with neither alone being sufficient.

Agriculture is the foundation of civilization. Humanity must discern how it will feed nine-billion-plus people without further destroying the environment. If we destroy our environment, we destroy ourselves WWF, The authors of this commentary propose a One Health paradigm that respects food production as part of the ecology of natural systems, values soil and water, lauds people and businesses that tread lightly on that ecology, and seeks food systems that deliver nutritious foods to support good health in humans and animals.

This One Health vision requires supportive policies from and with organizations empowered to address food system challenges. Under a One Health framework, the true cost of food would consider and endogenize food systems-related costs to public health and the environment. This new paradigm needs data governance platforms that collect and analyze data in real time to be proactive in developing metrics and monitoring how One Health outcomes are being achieved see Figure 3.

This action helped to avert shortages that could have further increased retail food prices during the COVID pandemic, according to FDA officials. In addition, to help lower food costs amid supply chain disruptions, USDA provided funding to help meat and poultry processors expand their operations and for producers to expand fertilizer manufacturing.

However, agencies do not have a direct role in controlling price increases, according to agency officials. Increases in food prices can pose a hardship for many in the U.

Multiple factors along the food supply chain can affect the food prices consumers see at grocery and other food stores. Several federal agencies have programmatic and regulatory responsibilities aimed at supporting the food supply chain. Consider space-saving storage methods like mylar bags.

Test and cycle through inventory to maximize freshness. Tailoring your emergency food supply to a family of 4 allows you to prepare balanced, individualized meals.

Build your supply around versatile ingredients like rice, pasta, oats, and canned vegetables. Estimate pounds of grains per person weekly.

Include canned proteins like tuna, chicken, and salmon. Swap sugary snacks for shelf-stable comfort foods like peanut butter and jelly. Vitamin supplements fill nutritional gaps. Customize portions for members' ages and activity levels.

Having a month supply readily available delivers short-term security. Taking advantage of bulk pricing helps stretch your emergency food budget. Shop at warehouse stores for grains, canned goods, and other non-perishables.

Seek out prepper-focused online retailers for long shelf life staples. Build relationships with local farms and orchards for deals on large quantities of fresh produce at harvest time. Consider going in with friends on bulk buys to save money.

Repackage bulk items into smaller servings using mylar bags and oxygen absorbers to prevent spoilage. Apply online coupons and wait for sales. Sign up for loyalty programs. Allocate monthly funds until you reach your supply goal.

Choose economical foods that also deliver balanced nutrition for crisis situations. Prioritize beans, lentils, oats, rice, pasta, and canned or powdered milk for affordable protein and calories.

Canned and freeze-dried produce provide vitamin richness. Opt for whole grain pastas, flours, and cereals when possible. Store honey for its longevity and antioxidant content. Multi-vitamins fill gaps. Save money by buying in bulk then sealing in mylar bags.

Shop sales and buy generics of shelf-stable staples you already eat. Grow your own vegetables to supplement supplies. Creating a well-rounded, budget-based supply list ensures you get the most critical items without overspending.

Start with bulk pantry staples like rice, beans, oats, pasta, and canned goods. Add nutritious shelf-stable items like peanut butter, nuts, dried fruit, and whole grain crackers.

Include basic baking ingredients, spices, oils, and vitamin supplements. Determine the best value package sizes for your needs and storage space. Note items you already use regularly that store well. Set a monthly budget and watch for coupons, sales, and bulk deals to maximize savings.

Revise as you go based on consumption and changing needs. When it comes to building an emergency food supply on a budget, focusing on bulk purchases of cost-effective staples is key. Here are some tips:.

Buying food in bulk is one of the most budget-friendly ways to build up a long-term supply. Focus on basics like rice, beans, oats, pasta, canned vegetables, and other non-perishable items.

Many grocery stores sell these in large bags or containers at a discounted per-pound price. Watch for sales on canned goods and other non-perishables at your grocery store. When you see a good deal, buy extra to slowly build up your reserves.

Services like Flipp can help you find the best local deals. Though more expensive per ounce, freeze-dried and dehydrated foods last for decades and take up less storage space.

Build your supply gradually by adding a few pouches each month. Shop sales and buy in bulk packs to save. For the most budget-friendly long-term food supply, consider growing your own fruits and vegetables. This ensures you'll have homegrown food for years to come.

Focus on hardy, calorie-and nutrient-dense crops like potatoes, carrots, cabbage, etc. Water is even more vital for survival than food. Stock up on bottled water when it's on sale. Also have water filtration methods like a Berkey system or Lifestraws.

Rotate and replenish your supply every 6 months. The most economical approach is to buy bulk non-perishables on sale, supplement with some commercial freeze-dried or dehydrated foods for variety, and try growing some of your own fruits and veggies.

Maintain and rotate the supply every months. When building your long-term food storage , focus on nutritious non-perishable foods that provide protein, fruits, vegetables, grains, and fluids. Some cost-effective staples to stock up on include:.

Canned meats, beans, fish, and poultry: These are excellent sources of protein and they last years in storage. Look for tuna, salmon, chicken, turkey, ham, beef stew, chili, canned beans, etc.

Canned fruits and vegetables: Stock up on canned veggies like green beans, corn, peas, carrots, potatoes, as well as canned fruits like pineapple, pears, peaches, and applesauce. They last years and provide essential vitamins. Whole grains: Whole grains like rice, quinoa, oats, wheat, and pasta last up to 30 years in storage and are inexpensive to buy in bulk.

Make sure to store them in airtight containers. Shelf-stable milk and cereal: Powdered milk, condensed milk, and nut milks make good long-term dairy options. Also stock up on cereal, granola bars, crackers, and nuts. Water and drinks: Have at least a 1-month supply of water for your family.

Also store drink mixes, coffee, tea, powdered juices, and electrolyte mixes. When buying in bulk, look for sales and coupons to get the best deals on emergency food. Create a balanced stockpile with items your family already eats to avoid waste.

Rotate and replace items as you use them. With some planning, you can build an economical long-term food supply. When it comes to the best long term food supply for preppers on a budget, there are a few reputable brands to consider that balance quality and affordability.

Thrive Foods receives high marks for providing nutrient-dense freeze dried foods and meals at a reasonable price point for the quality. Their food kits offer tasty selections like black bean burgers, chicken pesto pasta, and apple cinnamon oatmeal that have a shelf-life of 25 years.

Mountain House is well-known for their reliable and appetizing selection of freeze dried foods that have supported outdoor adventurers and emergency preppers for decades.

For those focused strictly on maximizing calories per dollar spent, Emergency Essentials offers the best value with their basic grains and proteins. Their offerings may not provide as much variety or gourmet flavor as other brands, but Emergency Essentials provides cost-effective staples.

Mountain House rates just slightly lower at 8. However, their overall quality remains superb. But their products check the box for safely stockpiling the basics. When balancing priorities around quality, affordability, and shelf-stable essentials - Thrive Foods stands out as a top contender for the best long term food supply.

Their exceptional quality paired with very reasonable prices makes them a great choice for stocking up an emergency food reserve. Dried foods like beans, rice, pasta, oats, and wheat berries can be preserved for years if stored properly.

Store dried goods in food-grade buckets or mylar bags. This creates an airtight seal that prevents oxygen, moisture, insects, and rodents from getting in. Add oxygen absorbers to the buckets or bags before sealing.